Physiological response to chemical immobilization: a case study of etorphine-azaperone in free-ranging plains zebra (Equus quagga) in Kenya

Predictable immobilization of wild zebras is challenging and there is massive variation in opiate response within different species.Etorphine combined with azaperone is considered the protocol of choice, but no studies have investigated the physiological response to this procedure of immobilization in plains zebras. Eleven free-ranging plains zebras (Equus quagga) were immobilized in Kenya using a combination of etorphine 0.019 ± 0.003 mg/kg and azaperone 0.27 ± 0.05 mg/kg administered intramuscularly with a projectile dart. After recumbency, an arterial sample was performed for blood gas analysis and physiological parameters were recorded every five minutes.Descriptive scores were given to the exertion resulting from high-speed chasing and to the quality of induction, immobilization and recovery. Diprenorphine or naltrexone were used for opioid antagonism. In all zebras, the combination induced quick inductions within 3.5 ± 0.8 minutes and provided reliable recumbencies without attempts to stand for the entire duration of the immobilization.The average heart rates, respiratory rates and mean arterial blood pressure recorded were 102 ± 42 beats/minute, 18 ± 4 breaths/minute and 145 ± 28 mmHg respectively. Arterial gas analyses demonstrated mild to severe and partially compensated metabolic acidosis and hypoxia, while electrolytes were within equids range. In particular, higher exertion levels during the chasing were significantly correlated to worse immobilization scores (p=0.008) and hyperthermia occurrence (p=0.0012) and non-significantly to more severe acidosis. Recoveries from anaesthesia were smooth, on average 121 ± 38 seconds after diprenorphine/naltrexone administration.           Etorphine-azaperone combination produced physiological alterations in free-ranging plains zebra such as tachycardia, hypertension, metabolic acidosis and hypoxemia. However, these preliminary results indicate that high-speed chase might be responsible for the physiological imbalance and that this drug combination does not suppress the compensatory response. Regardless of the metabolic status, recover from immobilization was uneventful and all zebras went back to normal behavior thereafter

Characterisation of recent foot-and-mouth disease viruses from African buffalo ( <i>Syncerus caffer</i> ) and cattle in Kenya is consistent with independent virus populations

BACKGROUND: Understanding the epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), including roles played by different hosts, is essential for improving disease control. The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is a reservoir for the SAT serotypes of FMD virus (FMDV). Large buffalo populations commonly intermingle with livestock in Kenya, yet earlier studies have focused on FMD in the domestic livestock, hence the contribution of buffalo to disease in livestock is largely unknown. This study analysed 47 epithelia collected from FMD outbreaks in Kenyan cattle between 2008 and 2012, and 102 probang and serum samples collected from buffalo in three different Kenyan ecosystems; Maasai-Mara (MME) (n = 40), Tsavo (TSE) (n = 33), and Meru (ME) (n = 29). RESULTS: Antibodies against FMDV non-structural proteins were found in 65 of 102 (64%) sera from buffalo with 44/102 and 53/102 also having neutralising antibodies directed against FMDV SAT 1 and SAT 2, respectively. FMDV RNA was detected in 42% of the buffalo probang samples by RT-qPCR (Cycle Threshold (Ct) ≤32). Two buffalo probang samples were positive by VI and were identified as FMDV SAT 1 and SAT 2 by Ag-ELISA, while the latter assay detected serotypes O (1), A (20), SAT 1 (7) and SAT 2 (19) in the 47 cattle epithelia. VP1 coding sequences were generated for two buffalo and 21 cattle samples. Phylogenetic analyses revealed SAT 1 and SAT 2 virus lineages within buffalo that were distinct from those detected in cattle. CONCLUSIONS: We found that FMDV serotypes O, A, SAT 1 and SAT 2 were circulating among cattle in Kenya and cause disease, but only SAT 1 and SAT 2 viruses were successfully isolated from clinically normal buffalo. The buffalo isolates were genetically distinct from isolates obtained from cattle. Control efforts should focus primarily on reducing FMDV circulation among livestock and limiting interaction with buffalo. Comprehensive studies incorporating additional buffalo viruses are recommended. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-015-0333-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users

Epidemiology of Theileria bicornis among black and white rhinoceros metapopulation in Kenya

[Background] A huge effort in rhinoceros conservation has focused on poaching and habitat loss as factors leading to the dramatic declines in the endangered eastern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis michaeli) and the southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum). Nevertheless, the role disease and parasite infections play in the mortality of protected populations has largely received limited attention. Infections with piroplasmosis caused by Babesia bicornis and Theileria bicornis has been shown to be fatal especially in small and isolated populations in Tanzania and South Africa. However, the occurrence and epidemiology of these parasites in Kenyan rhinoceros is not known.[Results] Utilizing 18S rRNA gene as genetic marker to detect rhinoceros infection with Babesia and Theileria, we examined blood samples collected from seven rhinoceros populations consisting of 114 individuals of black and white rhinoceros. The goal was to determine the prevalence in Kenyan populations, and to assess the association of Babesia and Theileria infection with host species, age, sex, location, season and population mix (only black rhinoceros comparing to black and white rhinoceros populations). We did not detect any infection with Babesia in the sequenced samples, while the prevalence of T. bicornis in the Kenyan rhinoceros population was 49.12% (56/114). White rhinoceros had significantly higher prevalence of infection (66%) compared to black rhinoceros (43%). The infection of rhinoceros with Theileria was not associated with animal age, sex or location. The risk of infection with Theileria was not higher in mixed species populations compared to populations of pure black rhinoceros.[Conclusion] In the rhinoceros studied, we did not detect the presence of Babesia bicornis, while Theileria bicornis was found to have a 49.12% prevalence with white rhinoceros showing a higher prevalence (66%) comparing with black rhinoceros (43%). Other factors such as age, sex, location, and population mix were not found to play a significant role.We acknowledge support by the CSIC Open Access Publication Initiative through its Unit of Information Resources for Research (URICI)Peer reviewe

Spatio-Temporal Distribution of Injured Elephants in Masai Maraandthe Putative Negative andPositive Roles of the Local Community

Background: Very few studies have ever focused on the elephants that are wounded or killed as local communities attempt to scare these animals away from their settlements and farms, or on the cases in which local people take revenge after elephants have killed or injured humans. On the other hand, local communities live in close proximity to elephants and hence can play a positive role in elephant conservation by informing the authorities of the presence of injured elephants. Methodology/Principal Findings: Between 2007 and 2011, 129 elephants were monitored in Masai Mara (Kenya), of which 54 had various types of active (intentionally caused) or passive (non-intentionally caused) injuries. Also studied were 75 random control samples of apparently unaffected animals. The observed active injuries were as expected biased by age, with adults suffering more harm; on the other hand, no such bias was observed in the case of passive injuries. Bias was also observed in elephant sex since more males than females were passively and actively injured. Cases of passive and active injuries in elephants were negatively related to the proximity to roads and farms; the distribution of injured elephants was not affected by the presence of either human settlements or water sources. Overall more elephants were actively injured during the dry season than the wet season as expected. Local communities play a positive role by informing KWS authorities of the presence of injured elephants and reported 43% of all cases of injured elephants. Conclusions: Our results suggest that the negative effect of local communities on elephants could be predicted by elephant proximity to farms and roads. In addition, local communities may be able to play a more positive role in elephant conservation given that they are key informants in the early detection of injured elephants.Peer reviewe

Advances in studies of disease-navigating webs: Sarcoptes scabiei as a case study

The discipline of epidemiology is the study of the patterns, causes and effects of health and disease conditions in defined anima populations. It is the key to evidence-based medicine, which is one of the cornerstones of public health. One of the important facets of epidemiology is disease-navigating webs (disease-NW) through which zoonotic and multi-host parasites in general move from one host to another. Epidemiology in this context includes (i) classical epidemiological approaches based on the statistical analysis of disease prevalence and distribution and, more recently, (ii) genetic approaches with approximations of disease-agent population genetics. Both approaches, classical epidemiology and population genetics, are useful for studying disease-NW. However, both have strengths and weaknesses when applied separately, which, unfortunately, is too often current practice. In this paper, we use Sarcoptes scabiei mite epidemiology as a case study to show how important an integrated approach can be in understanding disease-NW and subsequent disease control.Project support was provided by Proyecto de Excelencia RNM 06400 (Junta de Andalucia, Spain) and Juan de la Cierva Grant (MinisterioInnovación y ciencia, Spain), the Special Fund for Agro-scientific Research in the Public Interest (Grant No. 201303037), the PRIN 2010/2011 Grant (Ministero Università e Ricerca, Italy, Code D11J2000360001) and the Science Fund for Creative Research Groups of Gansu Province (Grant No. 1210RJIA006).Peer Reviewe